a b c d e f "Glass – Chemistry Encyclopedia". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 1 April 2015. a b c Julian Henderson (2013). Ancient Glass. Cambridge University Press. pp.127–157. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139021883.006. Scientific Glassblowing | National Museum of American History". Americanhistory.si.edu. 17 December 2012 . Retrieved 4 March 2020. a b Gardner, Irvine Clifton; Hahner, Clarence H. (1949). Research and Development in Applied Optics and Optical Glass at the National Bureau of Standards: A Review and Bibliography. U.S. Government Printing Office. p.13. ISBN 9780598682413. Its brilliance, its clarity and the quality of its appearance, which is the privilege of age-old and rare expertise.

a b c Werner Vogel: "Glass Chemistry"; Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K; 2nd revised edition (November 1994), ISBN 3-540-57572-3 Once the desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses and to increase the glass's hardness and durability. [116] Surface treatments, coatings or lamination may follow to improve the chemical durability ( glass container coatings, glass container internal treatment), strength ( toughened glass, bulletproof glass, windshields [117]), or optical properties ( insulated glazing, anti-reflective coating). [118] We can start to parse the raw materials that went into the production of the glass and then suggest where in the world it came from,” says materials scientist Marc Walton of Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, coauthor of an article about materials science and archaeological artifacts and artwork in the 2021 Annual Review of Materials Research. a b B.H.W.S. de Jong, "Glass"; in "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry"; 5th edition, vol. A12, VCH Publishers, Weinheim, Germany, 1989, ISBN 978-3-527-20112-9, pp. 365–432. a b c d e f Ward-Harvey, K. (2009). Fundamental Building Materials. Universal-Publishers. pp.83–90. ISBN 978-1-59942-954-0.If you’re looking for a new TV now, however, and the idea of dishless Sky TV appeals, then Sky Glass is an attractive option. Rivera, V. A. G.; Manzani, Danilo (30 March 2017). Technological Advances in Tellurite Glasses: Properties, Processing, and Applications. Springer. p.214. ISBN 978-3-319-53038-3. Art from a tomb (top) showsmetal workers using blowpipes to ventilate a small fire during an era that pre-dates Amarna. In an archaeological experiment (bottom), researchers tested whether it was possible to make glass beads like those found at Amarna in a similar manner, blowing into the fire using pipes. Glass is one of today’s most versatile building materials due to its virtually unlimited aesthetic options and outstanding energy characteristics. The breadth of glass colors available is one reason why glass is so aesthetically versatile. But how does the industry ensure precise color accuracy in glass coatings? And how do you read color in glass?

Neumann, Florin. "Glass: Liquid or Solid – Science vs. an Urban Legend". Archived from the original on 9 April 2007 . Retrieved 8 April 2007. a b "Properties of Matter Reading Selection: Perfect Teamwork". www.propertiesofmatter.si.edu. Archived from the original on 12 May 2016 . Retrieved 25 April 2017.Dien, Albert E. (2007). Six Dynasties Civilization. Yale University Press. p.290. ISBN 978-0-300-07404-8. Despite all of those drivers, however, and the additional up-firing Atmos speakers, the surround-sound effect is limited. I wasn’t overly impressed with the way Sky Glass delivers bass, either; even with the Bass Boost option toggled on in the settings, there’s very little low-end thump and rumble. Hodgkinson’s team found glass rods and chips all over the area of Amarna they excavated. Some were unearthed near relatively low-status households without kilns, a headscratcher because of the assumed role of glass in signifying status. Inspired by even older Egyptian art that depicted two metalworkers blowing into a fire with pipes, the archaeologists wondered whether small fires could be used to work glass. Sweating and getting stinky around the flames, they discovered they could reach high enough temperatures to form beads in smaller fires than those typically associated with glasswork. Such tiny fireplaces may have been missed by earlier excavators, Hodgkinson says, so perhaps glassworking was less exclusive than researchers have always thought. Maybe women and children were also involved, Hodgkinson speculates, reflecting on the many hands required to maintain the fire.

Louis Comfort Tiffany in America specialised in stained glass, both secular and religious, in panels and his famous lamps. The early 20th-century saw the large-scale factory production of glass art by firms such as Waterford and Lalique. Small studios may hand-produce glass artworks. Techniques for producing glass art include blowing, kiln-casting, fusing, slumping, pâte de verre, flame-working, hot-sculpting and cold-working. Cold work includes traditional stained glass work and other methods of shaping glass at room temperature. Objects made out of glass include vessels, paperweights, marbles, beads, sculptures and installation art. [146] Tin oxide with antimony and arsenic oxides produce an opaque white glass ( milk glass), first used in Venice to produce an imitation porcelain, very often then painted with enamels. Similarly, some smoked glasses may be based on dark-colored inclusions, but with ionic coloring it is also possible to produce dark colors (see above).Mattox, D.M. (2014). Handbook of Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Processing. Cambridge University Press. p.60. ISBN 978-0-08-094658-0. To reduce the melting point of silica, it is necessary to add a flux; this is the purpose of the sodium carbonate (soda ash), which makes available the fluxing agent sodium oxide. By adding about 25 percent of the sodium oxide to silica, the melting point is reduced from 1,723 to 850 °C (3,133 to 1,562 °F). But such glasses are easily soluble in water (their solutions are called water glass). The addition of lime ( calcium oxide, or CaO), supplied by the limestone, renders the glass insoluble again, but too much makes a glass prone to devitrification—i.e., the precipitation of crystalline phases in certain ranges of temperature. The optimum composition is about 75 percent silica, 10 percent lime, and 15 percent soda, but even this is too liable to devitrification during certain mechanical forming operations to be satisfactory.